Optical Fiber Cable

 Optical Fibre is new medium, in which information (voice, Data or Video) is

transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light

  

  Transmission Sequence

•(1) Information is Encoded into Electrical Signals.

•(2) Electrical Signals are Coverted into light 

•(3) Light Travels Down the Fiber.

•(4) A Detector Changes the Light Signals into Electrical Signals.

•(5) Electrical Signals are Decoded into Information.

Transmission

FIBRE GEOMETRY

An Optical fibre consists of a core of optically transparent

material usually silica or borosilicate glass surrounded by a

cladding of the same material but a slightly lower refractive

index.

STEP INDEX MULTIMODE FIBREThis fibre is called "Step Index" because the refractive index changes abruptly from cladding to core.The cladding has a refractive index somewhat lower thanthe refractive index of the core glass.GRADED INDEX MULTI-MODE FIBRE

This fibre is called graded index because there are many

changes in the refractive index with larger values towards

the center.

Optical Movement inside the fiber

Advantages

4G Technology - Features

 FEATURES OF FOURTH GENERATION 

TECHNOLOGY (4G)

                                       User requirements are growing faster than ever and the limitations of the current mobile communication systems have forced the researchers to come up with more advanced and efficient technologies. 4G mobile technology is the next step in this direction. 4G is the next generation of wireless networks that will totally replace 3G networks. 

With the deployment of 3G (3rd generation mobile communication systems) in process, the interest of many research bodies shifts towards future systems beyond 3G. They are called B3G (beyond 3G) or 4G (4th generation mobile communication). The term 4G is used broadly to include several types of broadband wireless access communication systems, not only cellular telephone systems.

OBJECTIVES 

•4G will be a fully IP-based integrated system.

•Providing transfer rate between 100 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s speeds 

    both indoors and outdoors.

•Premium quality and high security.

•Interoperability with existing wireless standards

CHALLENGES IN MIGRATION TO 4G 

•Multimode user terminals 

•Security 

•Attacks on application level 

•Jamming and spoofing 

•Data encryption

SCOPE IN 4G

      •Multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO

      •Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)

      •Software Defined Radio (SDR)

Features

•High performance

•Interoperability and easy roaming

•Fully converged services.

•Devices: more user friendly interface

•Enhanced GPS Services•Scalability•Crisis-Management 

applications

Conclusion

This blog article provided an overview of the 4G evolution and

technologies. 4G will certainly add perceived benefit to an

ordinary person’s life over 3G. 4G will be an intelligent

technology that will interconnect the entire world seamlessly.

Projected 4G mobile communication system will reduce

number of different technologies to a single global standard.

Technologies are evolving every day and night but the final

success of 4G mobile communication will depend upon the

new services and contents made available to users. These

new applications must meet user expectations, and give

added value over existing offers.

Solar Car

                                              Central and Eastern Europe might not be the first places you think of when it comes to electric cars. In fact, you’re probably more likely to think of bad cars, such as the infamous Yugo, dubbed the worst car in history.Although it’s not particularly known for its autos, Hungary is taking a stab at the electric vehicle market with a futuristic new solar-electric car. Founded by auto enthusiasts and backed by local investors, the Hungarian company Antro, is working on a prototype for a modular car that is capable of splitting into two separate vehicles. With solar panels on the roof, the three passenger Antro Solo can run up to 20 km per day on solar energy alone..

          The environmentally-conscious company started research back in 2002 and, with backing from various local sponsors, has invested 1.5 million euros in market research and development of a working prototype.

The Antro Solo concept is a three-passenger car, with a hybrid drive and solar cells on its roof that the company says could generate enough electricity for up to 20km a day at city speeds.Futuristic looking in itself, the grander plan for the car is much more audacious: Antro intends to allow users to be able to connect two Antro Solos to form a six-passenger Antro Duo. Or perhaps more interesting still, owners of a Duo could split the car into two smaller Solos should Mum have different weekend plans to Dad. Or if they divorce.The current prototype looks interesting, but I can’t believe its chances of ever making it to past the prototype stage are much above slim.

             Also worth a mention, just across the border to the south of Hungary, is a Croatian company called Dok-ing. It specialises in making landmine clearance machines, and sports the company motto: “Don’t send a man to do a machine’s job.” But it, too, has launched its own project for a small electric city car called Dok-ing XD — a fully electric three-seater that promises to travel 155 miles on a single two-hour charge.

The project was disclosed in 2009 after four years of development. But like Antro, Dok-ing XD sounds and looks good, but the likelihood of it hitting mass production are low. Local media hype followed announcement of the project last summer, but there has been no news since. The working prototype was expected to be on roads by the end of last year, which led to mass production being optimistically scheduled for middle of 2010.

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

                                          Short for liquid crystal display, a type of display used in digital watches and many portable computers. LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass through or blocking the light.

Monochrome LCD images usually appear as blue or dark gray images on top of a grayish-white background. Color LCD displays use two basic techniques for producing color: Passive matrix is the less expensive of the two technologies. The other technology, called thin film transistor (TFT) or active-matrix, produces color images that are as sharp as traditional CRT displays, but the technology is expensive. Recent passive-matrix displays using new CSTN and DSTN technologies produce sharp colors rivaling active-matrix displays.

Most LCD screens used in notebook computers are backlit, or transmissive, to make them easier to read.

A color television picture tube contains three electron guns, one corresponding to each of the three primary colors of light—red, green, and blue. Electromagnets direct the beams of electrons emerging from these guns to continuously scan the screen. As the electrons strike red, green, and blue phosphor dots on the screen, they make the dots glow. A screen with holes in it, called a shadowmask, ensures that each electron beam only strikes phosphor dots of its corresponding color. The glow of all the dots together forms the television picture.

Solar Power: The New Designs & Innovations

Solar power is no longer just about installing photovoltaic panels on existing rooftops to convert a bit of electricity with sunlight. Nowadays, people are finding unique ways to integrate solar energy into architectural, vehicular and even fashion designs from the beginning. Moreover, some innovators have even figured out ways to make structures entirely energy-independent by combining various alternative energy sources.

When solar was first introduced it was an auxiliary power source – now we have cars, boats, planes and even entire buildings that run on solar power. From the world’s first energy-autonomous vehicle to solar balloons, arcs, lily pads and even bras here are some of the most clever contemporary solar designs. These push the existing envelope of solar technology and design ingenuity.

                                                     It is hard to say whether the solar bra concept is more geared toward a male of a female audience. The stomach solar panel is perhaps a little less than sexy but supposedly generates enough energy to power a small mobile device such as an MP3 player or a cellular phone. The idea is interesting but the implementation is dubious. After all, who goes outside in only a bra? And what about the unwashability of such a clothing item...?

                                                                It has been called everything from Noah’s Eco-Arc to a giant stapler and many things in between. Born of a recall this structure was designed with reuse/recycling as well as alternative energy in mind. Following an unfortunate recall of a huge number of photovalic cells that simply could not be ethically resold Sanyo decided to use them themselves and create an amazing company structure at the same time.

                                                      One of the biggest problems, as everyone knows, with solar energy is the difficult off-times when the sun simply won’t shine (at night or during poor weather). To take advantage of even these down times systems like these that use materials (like salt) which store heat for long periods even in the absence of sun seem to be the next stage in solar energy evolution – making the absolute most out of available power and materials. What’s next on the solar horizon? Hard to say but the key elements seem to be: (a) using solar power even without the sun, (b) mixing solar power with other alternative energies and (c) making maximum use of solar power by integrating it with existing structures and vehicles at small and large scales with maximum material, time and cost efficiency.

                                                           This first commercial solar power station in Europe is a sight to behold, appearing like an alien object standing out brightly against the flat surrounding landscape. An array of solar panels around the base are used to reflect the sun direct at the giant tower in the middle where, in turn, that heat energy is used to raise the temperature of water piped through the structure. The panels are an awesome site to behold and rotate to track the sun throughout the year.

Difference between microprocessor and microcontroller

Basic block diagram of Microcontroller

Microprocesser

                                                                                                                             T                                         The microprocessor is the integration of a number of useful functions into a single IC package other wise it can be call it as a CPU.At the same time  a microcontroller is obtained by integrating the key components of microprocessor,RAM, ROM, and Digital I/O . Microcontrollers are usually designed to perform a small set of specific functions for example as in the case of a Digital Signal Processor which performs a small set of signal processing functions and it is  widely used to regulate the brakes on all four wheels, or to regulate the car air conditioning .But Microprocesser  performs a wide range of task ie microprocessor in a PC.The basic difference between the microprocessor and Microcontroller is that we can interface a microcontroller directly means "for example we can directly connect a keyboard to microcontroller to any of its ports"....where as for microprocessor we can't interface directly...we require a circuit board since it requires ram,ic's.....etc.,!We can directly interface digital and analog signal for processing.  But it is not the case in the microprocessor.Microprocessor is the device  that does not have memory(internal),in micontroller it has internal memory and has connected directly to pheripheral device.Microcontroller differs from a microprocessor in many ways. First and the most important is its functionality. In order for a microprocessor to be used, other components such as memory, or components for receiving and sending data must be added to it. In short that means that microprocessor is the very heart of the computer. On the other hand, microcontroller is designed to be all of that in one. No other external components are needed for its application because all necessary peripherals are already built into it.
Microprocesser can be control Multiple Application.
eg. System Design.

Microcontroller can be control Single or Particular Application Only.

eg. embedded systems.

Another way of considering this is:

If you want to run a video game you probably need a microprocessor.
If you want to run a microwave oven you probably need a microcontroller.